U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION OF MICKOSOOPY. 


PRODUCTS-! 


TWELVE EDIBLE MUSHROOMS OF -THE UNITED STATES, 

WITH 


TX 357 
.U56 
no. la 
Copy 1 


FOOD 


DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR IDENTIFICATION AND 
THEIR PREPARATION AS FOOD. 


BY 

THOMAS TAYLOR, M. L>., 

CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF MICROSCOPY. 


REPRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, 

WITH AN APPENDIX. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1894 . 


«¥*te<iaS. 











































A «%0 






TWELVE EDIBLE MUSHROOMS COMMON TO THE UNITED STATES. 

REPORT OF MICROSCOPIST. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 























U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


DIVISION OF MICROSCOPY. 




inno 






TWELVE EDIBLE MUSHROOMS OF THE UNITED STATES, 


WITH 

DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR IDENTIFICATION AND 
THEIR PREPARATION AS FOOD. 


BY 

THOMAS TAYLOR, M. IT, 

CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF MICROSCOPY. 


REPRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, 

WITH AN APPENDIX. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1894. 

i | * • 

i\ *33. 














By transfer 

AUG 29 (906 


> I 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 


U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Division of Microscopy, 
Washington , D. 0., March 6 , 1894. 

Sir: I respectfully submit for republication a paper on Twelve Edi¬ 
ble Mushrooms of the United States, first published as a part of my 
report for 1885, and reprinted in 1890 and 1893 in the series of bulletins 
prepared in this division on the subject of Food Products. The 
appendix included in the edition of 1893 is retained, and an additional 
article inserted on the Mushroom Industry. 

Vcry respectfully, 


Thomas Taylor, 


Micro sco]) 1st. 


Don. J. Sterling Morton, 

Secretary of Agriculture • 

3 



CONTENTS. 


Vapp, 

Twelve edible mushrooms of the United States... 5 

Food value of mushrooms . 5 

Twelve edible species. (See frontispiece) . 8 

Lactarius deliciosus Fr. Orange Milk Mushroom (Fig. 1). 8 

Canthardlus cibarius Fr. Chanterelle (Fig. 2). 9 

Marasmiui oreades Bolt. Fairy Ring Champignon (Fig. 3). 9 

Hydnum repandum L. Hedgehog or Spine Mushroom (Fig. 4). 10 

Agaricus campestris L. Meadow Mushroom (Fig. 5). 10 

Coprinus coviatm Fr. Maned Agaric (Fig. 6). 11 

Morchella esculenta P. (Fig. 7). 11 

Clavaria drierea Bull. (Fig. 8). 12 

Clavaria rugosa Bull. (Fig. 9). 12 

Boletus edulis Bull. Edible Pore Mushroom (Fig. 10) . 13 

Lycoperdon giganteum Batsch. Puffball (Fig. 11) . 13 

Fistulina hepatica Fr. Liver Fungus (Fig. 12). 15 

Methods of cultivation. 15 

Appendix: . 

Directions for the preparation and spawning of mushroom beds. 17 

Preparing the beds. 17 

Spawning the beds. 17 

The mushroom industry. 20 

A new species (Agaricus subrufesccns Peck). 22 

4 





























TWELVE EDIBLE MUSHROOMS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


For several years past tlie Division of Microscopy of tlie IT. S. Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture lias been in receipt of numerous letters from regular 
correspondents and others to the effect that in various localities, rep¬ 
resenting almost every section and climate of the Union, there are found 
large quantities of edible mushrooms and other allied fungi, few of 
which are utilized because the great majority of the people do not know 
how to distinguish the edible from the poisonous species. To obtain 
some clear and trustworthy criteria by which to make this essential 
distinction has been the object of the various communications received, 
and, in view of the highly nutritious properties of this class of escu 
lents and of the great possible value of their aggregate product, as 
indicated by the vast quantities produced in countries where attention 
is given to their cultivation, the importance of a satisfactory answer to 
these inquiries will be readily appreciated. 

FOOD VALUE OF MUSHROOMS. 

Rollrausch and Siegel, who claim to have made exhaustive investiga¬ 
tions into the food values of mushrooms, state that u many species de¬ 
serve to be placed beside meat as sources of nitrogenous nutriment,” 
and their analysis, if correct, fully bears out the statement. They find 
in 100 parts of dried Morchella esculenta 33.18 per cent of protein; in 
Helvetia esculenta , 26.31 per cent of protein, from 16 to 49 per cent of 
potassium salts and phosphoric acid, 2.3 per cent of fatty matter, and a 
considerable quantity of sugar. The Boletus edulis they represent as 
containing in 100 parts of the dried substance 22.82 per cent of pro¬ 
tein. The nitrogenous values of different foods as compared with the 
mushroom are stated as follows: u Protein substances calculated for 100 
parts of bread, 8.03; of oatmeal, 9.74; of barley bread, 6.39; of legum¬ 
inous fruits, 27.05; of potatoes, 4.85; of mushrooms, 33.0.” A much 
larger proportion of the various kinds of mushrooms are edible than 
is generally supposed, but a prejudice has grown up concerning them 
in this country which it will take some time to eradicate, notwith¬ 
standing the occurrence of occasional fatal accidents through the inad¬ 
vertent eating of poisonous species, fungi are largely consumed both by 
savage and civilized man in all parts of the world, and while they con¬ 
tribute so considerable a portion of the food product of the world we 

5 



6 


may be sure tlieir value will not be permanently overlooked in the Uni ted 
States, especially when we consider our large accessions of population 
from countries in which the mushroom is a familiar and much prized 
edible. 

In France mushrooms form a very large article of consumption and 
are widely cultivated. Mushroom beds are cultivated in caves, fre¬ 
quently miles in extent. A cave at Mery is mentioned as containing, 
in 1867,21 miles of beds, and producing not less than 3,000 pounds daily. 
Another at Frepillon contains 16 miles of beds. The catacombs and 
quarries of Paris and vicinity, and the caves of Moulin de la Eoclie, 
Sous Bicetre, and Bagneux produce immense quantities of mushrooms. 
They are all under Government supervision, and are regularly inspected 
like the mines. 

The mushroom which is cultivated in these quarries and caves almost 
to the exclusion of all others is the “Snow Ball” ( Agaricus arvensis). 
The truffle is held in high esteem and is largely exported. In 1872 the 
quantity of truffles exported from France was valued at over 3,000,000 
francs. In 1879 at nearly 10,000,000 francs. Immense quantities of the 
Agaricus deliciosus are sold in the Marseilles markets. The Fistulina 
liepatica is also in great demand, and many other varieties appear from 
time to time in the markets throughout France. The natives of Aus¬ 
tralia use largely a truffle which attains a weight of more than 2 pounds, 
and is known under the name of “native bread.” The Chinese, who 
are noted for the care bestowed on their esculent vegetation, consume 
large quantities of edible fungi, importing largely from Japan and 
Tahiti. Tne trade in edible fungi from Tahiti to China commenced 
about the year 1866; in 1868 only 70 tons were shipped; in 1873 135 
tons were exported to China, and in 1874 152 tons were exported. 

The value of mushrooms imported by Shanghai from Tahiti in 1872 
was 107,000 taels, and in 1873 138,800 taels—the tael is worth about 6 
shillings sterling, or about $1.50 in United States currency. The 
fungus shipped (. Hirneola auricula-Judce B.) is said to be very rich in 
fungine and nitrogen. It is a very bulky freight; 10 tons will occupy 
the room of 30 tons ordinary freight. 

A very laudable practice of the Chinese Government alluded to in an 
English journal, and which might perhaps be advantageously adopted 
in this country, is the publishing for annual gratuitous distribution of 
numerous treatises, describing the different herbs which can be utilized 
in whole or in part for food purposes. One of these treatises is called 
the “Anti-Famine Herbal,” and consists of six volumes, containing 
descriptions, with illustrations, of over four hundred plants which can 
be used as food. These volumes are of inestimable value in districts 
where the ravages of insects, drought, etc., have destroyed the grain 
and rice crops, and famine is imminent. For some years past New Zea¬ 
land has exported large quantities of an edible fungus to San Fran- 
ciso and Hongkong for use of the Celestials. A full account of this 


) 


7 


industry may be obtained from tlie United States consular reports. 
The gathering and drying of the fungus give profitable employment 
to large numbers of colonial children, as well as to the Maoris. The 
species grows abundantly in the wooded regions of New Zealand, and 
when dry is worth from 4 to 5 pence a pound. The Chinese, who are 
singularly free from prejudice in the matter of food, use it, as they do 
the edible nest of their swallow, as a chief ingredient in their favorite 
soup. They also employ it as a medicine, and, stranger still, for mak¬ 
ing a valuable dye for silk. Another remarkable edible fungus of New 
Zealand is the >S 'phwria Bobertsii , which grows out of the body of a 
large caterpillar, practically converting the latter into vegetable sub¬ 
stance. The caterpillar lives under ground, and the fungus springs 
upward through the soil till it reaches a height of 8 or 10 inches. It is 
eaten by the Maoris, who use it also, when burned, as a coloring matter. 

The Japanese grow several species of edible fungi in logs of de¬ 
caying wood in a manner peculiar to themselves, and, aside from the 
home consumption, they in one year exported to China mushrooms to 
the value of $00,000, In 1879 mushrooms were exported from Japan to 
the value of 243,440 yens. The yen is equal to 99.7 cents. Among the 
northeastern tribes of Asia fungi are largely used as food. One species, 
when pounded, forms their snuff, while another, the Fly Agaric , which 
is utilized in Europe as a fiy killer, and is regarded as one of the most 
poisonous forms, is used by them as a substitute for ardent spirits. 
One large specimen is sufficient “to produce a pleasant intoxication 
for a whole day,” the alcohol being obtained by the usual method of 
fermentation. In many parts of Europe fungi are a favorite food, 
being eaten fresh, and also preserved in vinegar for winter use. For 
pickling purposes, all kinds, it is said, are gathered, the vinegar being 
supposed to neutralize the alkaline poison of the noxious species. The 
common mushroom, the morel, and the truffle are, however, the favor¬ 
ite edible fungi. In Italy the value of the mushroom as an article of 
diet has long been understood and appreciated. Pliny, Galen, and 
Dioscorides mention various esculent species, notably varieties of the 
truffle, the boletus and the puffball. At Rome it has been the custom 
of the Government to appoint inspectors to examine all the mushrooms 
brought into market and to reject such as are poisonous or worthless, 
which are thrown into the Tiber. It was forbidden also to hawk mush¬ 
rooms about the streets, and all were required to be sent to the central 
depot for inspection. 

The yearly average of the taxed mushrooms sold (all over 10 pounds 
being taxed) in the city of Rome alone, for the past decade, has been 
estimated at between 60,000 and 80,000 pounds weight. Large quan¬ 
tities of mushrooms are consumed in Germany, Hungary, Russia, and 
Austria, and in the latter country a list is published, by authority, of 
those mushrooms which upon official examination may be sold. Dar¬ 
win speaks of Terra del Fuego as the only country where cryptogamio 


8 


plants form a staple article of food. A bright yellow fungus allied to 
Bulgarin forms, with shellfish, the staple food of the Fuegians. In 
England the common meadow mushroom Agaric,us campestris is quite 
w r ell known and used to a considerable extent among the people, but 
there is not that general knowledge of and use of other species which 
obtains on the continent. Much has been done of late years by the 
Rev. M. J. Berkeley, Dr. Curtis, Dr. C. D. Badliam, Dr. M. C. Cooke, 
Worthington G. Smith, Prof. Charles Peck, and others to disseminate 
general knowledge on this subject. That America is rich in the quan¬ 
tity and variety of her esculent fungi is readily seen by the fact that 
one hundred and eleven species of edible fungi have been described by 
the Rev. Dr. Curtis, State botanist of North Carolina, as indigenous to 
that State alone. Late investigations show that nearly all the species 
common to the countries of Continental Europe are found in different- 
localities in the United States. Dr. J. J. Brown, of Sheboygan, Wis., 
writes that edible mushrooms are found in his neighborhood in great 
abundance. 

In preparing this paper for publication I have made selections from 
such of the species of edible mushrooms as have marked peculiarities 
of structure, habits, taste, odor, color, juice, and change of color of juice 
on exposure to the atmosphere. 

TWELVE EDIBLE SPECIES. 

Lactarius deliciosus Fr. Orange Milk Mushroom. 

Fig.l. 

This mushroom ( Lactarius deliciosus) is highly recommended by differ¬ 
ent authors. It belongs to the Lactars or milk-bearing group. As a 
group the milk-bearing mushrooms are generally viewed with suspicion, 
but the species u deliciosus ” receives general commendation as an escu¬ 
lent. It is easi ly distinguished from any other of the group by the orange 
or red color of the milk which exudes from it when cut or broken. The 
flesh changes on exposure to the atmosphere, as does the milk also, 
and becomes a dull green color. This mushroom has a firm, juicy flesh; 
its richly colored orange top is commonly, but not invariably, marked 
with zones of a deeper color. The stem is often spotted red; the gills 
or lamellae are the same color as the cap or pileus. It is found in plan¬ 
tations of fir and pine aud in swampy woods. A poisonous mushroom 
of this subgenus similar in shape and size can be readily distinguished 
from it by its white milk, which does not change. The flavor of Lac¬ 
tarius deliciosus when cooked is said to resemble that of u kidney stew.” 

Method of cooking .—The rich gravy it produces is its chief characteristic, lieuce it 
commends itself for sauces or as an ingredient in soups. It requires delicate cook- 
iug, as it becomes tough if kept over the fire until its juice lias evaporated. Baking 
is perhaps the best method of preparing this mushroom for the table. 


i 


9 


Cantharellus cibarius Fr. Chanterelle. 

Fig. 2. 

'Wherever found, this species ( Cantharellus cibarius) grows in great 
abundance. It is very popular in Europe, where in some localities the 
inhabitants make it their principal food. It is easily recognized by its 
rich color and the peculiar form of its gills. It is generally found in 
light woods and high situations. The pileus is lobed and irregular in 
shape. When young it is dome like, the margin rolled in; as it ap¬ 
proaches maturity the margin expands, forming an irregular wavy line, 
and the center of the pileus becomes depressed. The color is orange 
or deep yellow, somewhat resembling that of the yolk of an egg. The 
stem is tough, yellow, and solid, becoming hollow in maturity. The 
gills, which appear like short branching veins, are thick and wide 
apart, and are of the same color as the pileus. The texture is smooth, 
the flesh yellow and dense, and has a pleasant odor. Vittadini com¬ 
pares it to that of plums. It is somewhat dry and tough in character, 
and therefore requires slow and protracted stewing, with plenty of 
liquid. In selecting for culinary purposes, crisp and heavy ones should 
be chosen in preference to light and soft ones, as being less likely to 
become leathery in cooking. Some recommend soaking them in milk 
over night to render them tender. 

Mrs. Hussey gives the following receipt: 

Cut the mushrooms across and remove the stems; put them into a closely covered 
saucepan, with a little fresh butter, and sweat them until tender at the lowest pos¬ 
sible temperature. A great heat always destroys the flavor. 

A deleterious species ( Cantharellus aurantiacus ), often found in rank 
grass or decaying herbage, is of the same color, and by a careless ob¬ 
server might be taken for the wholesome species. A little care and 
attention to detail, however, will enable one to distinguish one from the 
other. In the Cantharellus aurantiacus the pileus is covered with down 
and the veins or gills are crowded, thin, and of a much deeper color than 
the pileus. 

Marasmius oreades Bolt. Fairy Ring Champignon. 

Fig. 3. 

This mushroom (Marasmius oreades) is represented by all mycologists 
as one of the most highly flavored. It grows in rings in short pastures, 
on downs, and by road sides, but never in woods. It is very well 
marked, somewhat tough, the solid stem particularly so. In color it is 
a bright buff. The gills are wide apart and are of a cream color. 
When dried it can be kept for years without losing its flavor. u It is 
much used in the French a la mode beef shops in London, with the view 
of flavoring that dish.” Dr. Badham, Rev. M. J. Berkeley, and Mr. 
Worthington GL SraitJ,of England, highly recommend the Fairy Ring 
Champignon , and it is said by experts in the culinary art that, when 



10 


boiled with butter, it lias an exquisitely rich and delicious flavor. Mr. 
Berkeley says it is so common in some districts in England that bushels 
may be gathered in a day. 

Another species of this genus (M. peronatus, or Hairy Foot), found 
growing in woods, on dead leaves, is to be avoided. The gills of this 
species are darker in color and narrower. It has a hairy down at the 
base of the stem by which it may also be distinguished. 

Hydnum repandum L. Hedgehog or Spine Mushroom. 

Fig. 4. 

The genus Hydnum being so well defined, having spines instead of 
gills or pores, is easily distinguished from all others. 

The pileus of the species repandum is irregular in shape, depressed 
in the center, fleshy, and of a pale cinnamon or yellowish color. 

Flesh firm and white, turning slightly brown when bruised. The 
spines are awl-shaped, of various sizes, crowded and running down; 
paler in color than the pileus. Stem solid, at first white, and then 
tawny cream color; spores round and white. There are no poisonous 
species in this genus, although some are too tough to be considered 
edible. 

The species repandum is the most desirable of the genus Hydnum. 
M. Koques, an eminent French mycologist, says: 

The general use of this fungus throughout France, Italy, and Germany leaves no 
room for doubt as to its good qualities. 

It is common in oak and pine woods in England. Mrs. Hussey rec¬ 
ommends stewing this mushroom in brown or white sauce. 

Cook slowly and for a long time and keep well supplied with liquid, it being 
naturally deficient in moisture. 

Its dry nature makes it easy to preserve, and it may be kej)t for a 
great length of time. 

Agaricus campestris L. Meadotv Mushroom. 


Fig. 5. 

To distinguish this species (campestris, or meadow mushroom) re¬ 
quires very little discrimination. The cap or pileus is fleshy, white, or 
tawny, sometimes brownish. When it is in its best condition for use 
the gills are a beautiful pink in color, ultimately becoming a deep 
brown, which reaches nearly to the stem, which carries a well-marked 
white woolly ring or volva. The cap is usually more or less adorned 
with minute silky fibrils. The margin generally extends a little beyond 
the outer extremity of the gills. It has an enticing fragrance, and the 
white flesh is sometimes inclined to change to pink when broken. It 
grows in open grassy places in fields and rich pastures, but never in 
thick woods. 



11 




It may be prepared for tlie table by stewing with butter, spice, pars¬ 
ley, sweet herbs, salt and pepper, and a little pure lemon juice. It 
makes a line catsup, and cut up in small pieces and stewed with butter 
makes an agreeable adjunct to a steak or mutton chop. The catsup may 
be used to give flavor to soup or beef tea. 

This mushroom should be eaten fresh and served hot. 

Dr. Badham says: 

The mushroom having the same proximate principles as meat, requires, like meat, 
to be cooked. 

Mr. Worthington G. Smith says: 

The Agaricus arvensis (horse mushroom) is a species very nearly allied to the 
meadow mushroom and frequently grows with it, but it is coarser and has not the 
same delicious flavor. It is usually much larger, often attaining enormous dimen¬ 
sions; it turns a brownish yellow as soon as broken or bruised. The top in good 
specimens is smooth and snowy white; the gills are not the pure pink of the meadow 
mushroom, but a dirty brownish white, ultimately turning brown. It has a big, 
ragged, floccose ring, and the pithy stem is inclined to be hollow. 


Coprinus comatus Fr. Maned Agaric. 

Fig. 6. 

The maned agaric (Coprinus comatus) is considered one of the most de¬ 
licious of all the mushroom tribe when young. The cap is first cylindri¬ 
cal, then bell-shaped, then expanded, more or less scaly, and split lon¬ 
gitudinally. The flesh is thick in the center and very thin at the 
margin. The gills are free, and at first white or pinkish, then black, 
soon melting into an inky fluid, the color of which is due to the presence 
of black spores. The ring on the stem is moveable, then disappears. 
The stem is white and hollow. This mushroom grows in waste and 
grassy places, lawns, and meadows. Only young specimens are de¬ 
sirable for esculent purposes. Mr. Worthington G. Smith, as the re¬ 
sult of considerable experience, observes: 

It must be noted, however, that when too young this agaric is rather deficient in 
flavor and its fibers tenacious. Its flavor is most rich and its texture most delicate 
when the gills show the pink color with sepia margins. 

It decays rapidly and should be cooked immediately after gathering. 
A very simple method is to broil and serve on toast. 


Morchella esculenta P. 


Fig. 7. 


This mushroom is known under a variety of names —Phallus csculcntus , 
Helvetia esculenta , etc. The genus Morchella has but few species, and 
most authors agree that all are edible. Berkeley considers the Mor- 
ch lla semilibera as doubtful. The head of the morel is deeply pitted, 
hollow, thin, and firm, and when fully grown is several inches in diam¬ 
eter. The morel is found in April and May, in grassy places, on the 


12 


border of fields and the raised banks of streams, sometimes in fir or 
chestnut forests and in hilly countries. It prefers a calcareous ground 
and flourishes on wood ashes. 

In Germany, France, and England it is well known and highly 
esteemed. In the United States it is little known, although it grows 
in several of the States in great abundance. I have had specimens of 
it from Missouri, Wisconsin, and Maryland. Curtis speaks of finding 
it in North Carolina, but not in quantity. It is identical with the 
European morel. In Yorkshire, England, the women who gather cow¬ 
slips for wine-brewing bring to market a few morels in the corners of 
their baskets and ask an extra shilling for them. The dried morel is 
used in parts of England to give a flavorto certain kindsof sauce. Large 
quantities of this fungus, in a prepared condition, are imported into 
England from the continent. 

The following receipt will illustrate one of the methods of cooking 
this excellent mushroom: 

Having washed and cleaned from them the earth which is apt to collect in the hol¬ 
lows of the plants, dry them thoroughly in a napkin, and put in a saucepan with 
pepper and salt and parsley, adding, or not, a piece of ham; stew for an hour, pour¬ 
ing in occasionally a little broth to prevent burning. When sufficiently done, bind 
with the yolks of two or three eggs and serve on buttered toast. 

Clavaria cinerea Bull. 


Fig. 8. 

Of this species (Cinerea) M. C. Cooke observes: 

It has a short, thick stem, is very much branched and irregular, and becomes ul¬ 
timately of a cinereous hue. The substance is brittle, and not tough as in some 
species. In France it is known under various names, as Pied de coq, Gallinole, etc., 
and in Italy as DitoJarossa ; in both of those countries it is eaten. 

It is quite plentiful in this country. I have had some fine specimens 
from the White Mountains. All the white spored Clavarias are whole¬ 
some. 


Clavaria rugosa Bull. 

Fig. 9. . • 

This species (Clavaria rugosa) is not generally found in sufficient 
quantities to make it of much value as an esculent, but it is wholesome, 
and can be cooked with other varieties of the genus. It is irregular in 
shape, white, and sometimes the tips are delicately tinted with a green¬ 
ish gray. Before cooking,'the plants should be sweated with butter 
over a slow fire and the liquor thrown away. They may then be 
wrapped in slices of bacon and stewed for an hour in a little sauce or 
gravy, seasoned wi:h salt, pepper, and parsley, then served with white 
sauce. 


I 


13 


Boletus edulis Bull. Edible Pore Mushroom . 

Fig. 10. 

Dr. Badham says: 

The word Boletus , which has at different times and under different mycologists 
been made to represent in turn many different funguses, is now restricted to such as 
have a soft flesh, vertical tubes underneath, round or angular, slightly connected to¬ 
gether and with the substance of the cap, open below and lined by the sporiferous 
membrane; the cap horizontal, very fleshy; the stalk generally reticulated. 

In this group it has been said that there are but few edible species 
and some that are very deleterious. The flesh of the poisonous species, 
it has been said, also invariably turns blue when bruised or broken, 
but this test, I think, can not be relied upon. “The Boletus edulis” 
says Badham, “can not be mistaken for any other Boletus , because it 
alone presents the following characters united, viz: A cap, the surface 
of which is smooth; tubes, the color of which varies with each period 
of its growth; beautiful and singular reticulation of the stalk, especially 
towards the upper portion, and a flesh which is white and unchanging 

The cap is brown. At first the tubes are white, then pale yellow, and 
when mature, a dull greenish yellow. For table use the specimens 
should be gathered when the tubes are pale yellow; it is then most 
tender. The stem is solid and quite thick, at first white, but turning 
to a light brown in maturity, displaying near the top a network of 
pinkish veins. It is sold in quantities in Italy. It is also quite popu¬ 
lar in Hungary, Germany, and Russia, and other European countries. 
It grows most abundantly in the autumn, although often found in 
spring and summer. It is found chiefly in the woods, more especially 
of pine, oak, and chestnut. The following receipt for cooking the Bo¬ 
letus is given by Persoon: 

It may be cooked in white sauce with or without chicken in fricassee, broiled or 
baked with butter, salad oil, pepper, salt, chopped herbs, and breadcrumbs, to which 
add some ham or a mi ace of anchovy. 

Its flesh is tender and juicy and it requires less cooking than some 
of the tougher mushrooms. 

Lycoperdon giganteum Batsch. Puffball. 

Fig. 11. 

The giant puffball ( Lycoperdon giganteum ), so generally neglected, is 
one of the most valuable of the edible mushrooms. It is readily dis¬ 
tinguished from other puffballs and allied fungi by its large size, it 
being from 10 to 20 inches in diameter, and by its form is easily sepa¬ 
rated from all other mushrooms. It is somewhat globose in form, 
whitish, or pale yellowish brown in color, filled with a soft white flesh 
when immature, which changes to an elastic, yellowish brown, cottony, 
but dusty mass of filaments and spores when mature. 


14 


Tn this state the peel or rind breaks up and gradually falls away in 
fragments. I have made full inquiry regarding it among mycologists 
and have not found a dissenting voice as to its value as an esculent. 
They all agree as to its edibility and tender character. All the spe¬ 
cies are edible, but the smooth-skinned varieties are more palatable 
than the rough-skinned. 

Vittadini, an Italian mycologist, says: 

When the giant puffball is conveniently situated you should only take one 
slice at a time, cutting it horizontally, and using great care not to disturb its growth, 
to prevent decay, and thus one may have a fritter every day for a week. 

Dr. M. C. Cooke, the eminent London mycologist, writes with enthu¬ 
siasm of the. merits of the giant puffball as an esculent, deeming it a 
delightful breakfast relish. 

Mrs. Hussey, of England, gives the following receipt for “puff-ball” 
omelet: 

First remove the outer skin; cut in slices half an inch thick; have ready some 
chopped herbs, peppers, and salt; dip the slices in the yolk of an egg and sprinkle 
the herbs upon them; fry in fresh butter and eat immediately. 

The puff-balls must be gathered young. If the substance within is 
white and pulpy it is in good condition for dressing, but if marked 
with yellow stains it should be rejected. 

The puff-ball is found growing in many parts of the United States 
and a few fine specimens have been forwarded to this Department for 
inspection. I have myself tested a fine specimen of the giant puff-ball 
found in the Department Grounds, finding it delicious eating when fried 
in egg batter. 

I am informed that the giant puffball (Ly coper don gig anteum) is found 
in great abundance growing on the Genesee Flats, Livingstone County, 
N. Y. 

J. M. 'Dodge, Glencoe, Yebr., writes to theU. S. Department of Agri¬ 
culture, April 9, 1878: 

I am much interested in the article “ Edible Fungi,” published in the Department 
Report for 1876. We have here a species of puffball which when young has firm, 
white flesh, and I think would be good to eat. It sometimes grows to a large size. 
It is quite abundant on the prairie in summer, and if edible would offer a large 
amount of food. 

A correspondent of the Argus, Clayton, Mo., October 14, 1887, 
writes: 

The United States Agricultural Report of 1885 gives clear descriptions and beautiful 
drawings of twelve typical edible fungi. Of these, No. 7, the morel, page 105, in the 
spring, we use large quantities. Since the late rains we have had twice a day a full 
supply of No. 6, Maned agaric, as a stew, and No. 11, “ puffball,” fried as a fritter. 
It is a misfortune that so little is known of this valuable class of products that are 
given by bountiful nature by the ton without any labor whatever. The nation is 
deeply indebted to Dr. Taylor, Microscopist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for 
these clear details and most reliable, lifelike drawings, and we hope they will be 
issued as a separate bulletin and sent out among the people by the million. Give us 
more light on those subjects. 


15 


Fistulina hcpatica Fr. Liver Fungus. 

Fig. 12. 

This fungus (Fistulina hcpatica) is frequently found on old oaks, 
chestnuts, and ash. It develops from the rotten bark. It appears first 
as a rosy pimple at any time during the summer season. In a very 
short time it becomes tongue-shaped and assumes the color of a beet¬ 
root. Ilia few days it changes form again, becoming broad in com¬ 
parison to its length and changing color to a deep blood-red. Its lower 
surface is often paler than its upper, it being tinged with yellow and 
pink hues. It requires about two weeks to attain its highest develop¬ 
ment, after which it gradually decays. 

It varies in size from a few inches to several feet in circumference. 
Rev. M. J. Berkeley mentions one which weighed 30 pounds. It has 
been styled, the u poor man’s f ungus ,” and in flavor resembles meatmore 
than any other. 

When young and tender it can be sliced and broiled or minced and 
stewed, making a delicious dish. When old, the stock is rather tough 
for good eating, but the gravy taken, from it is equal to that of the 
best beefsteak. The following receipt for cooking this fungus is recom¬ 
mended: 

Slice and macerate it, add pepper and salt, a little lemon, and minced eschalots, 
onions, or garlic; then strain and boil the liquid, which makes most excellent heef 
gravy. 

This fungus is esteemed in Europe, where it is eaten prepared in a 
variety of ways. Where it grows at all, it grows abundantly. I have 
found some fine specimens in the District of Columbia. 


METHODS OF CULTIVATION. 

Many methods of cultivating the common meadow mushroom have 
been presented by different growers, but all agree as to the value of the 
general methods in practice. Nearly every farm and nursery affords the 
conditions necessary to cultivate the ordinary field mushrooms, such as 
sheltered sheds, stables, and small liot-beds for winter cultivation, and 
melon patches, cucumber pits, etc., for summer culture. 

Mushroom spawn in “bricks” can be easily obtained from the seeds¬ 
men. Natural or virgin spawn, which is considered by many experienced 
growers as preferable to the artificial, can be obtained in most places 
where horses are kept. It is found in half-decomposed manure heaps, 
generally where horse droppings have accumulated under cover. It is 
readily distinguished by its white filamentous character, and by its 
mushroom odor. When dried it can be kept for years. 

Mushroom beds are easily formed on the floor of sheds, by carrying 
in the fresh stable dung, adding to it about one-fourth of good loam, 
mixing both together, pressing firmly down, and letting the mass re¬ 
main about two weeks untouched. By this time the temperature will 





16 


be on the decline, and when it falls to 90° F., break the bricks of spawn 
into pieces 2 inches square, and plant 12 inches apart, 3 inches below 
the surface, holes having been made for the purpose by means of a 
rounded stick. Fill up the opening made, level with the surface. Under 
favorable conditions the spawn will appear on the surface, spreading 
its white filaments through the mass within ten or twelve days. On 
the appearance of the spawn on the surface, cover over to the depth of 

3 inches with good garden soil, and press down firmly. Should the 
conditions prove unfavorable, spawn failing to appear, it is better to 
insert fresh spawn, or to remake the bed, adding fresh materials, if it 
is found that the materials have spent their heat-producing powers. 

By some it is deemed advisable not to put the spawn at any uniform 
depth, but so that while one piece of it may be at a depth of 6 inches, 
or nearly so, others may touch the surface, which allows the spawn to 
vegetate at a depth and temperature most congenial to it. Mushrooms 
may also be cultivated for family use in warm cellars, in boxes about 

4 feet square and 18 inches deep. 


APPENDIX. 


DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION AND SPAWNING OF 

MUSHROOM BEDS. 

The following practical directions for the preparation and spawning 
of mushroom beds have been transcribed from Mr. William Falconer’s 
valuable treatise, u Mushrooms, and How to Grow Them,” and are ap¬ 
pended in the belief that they will form a valuable supplement to the 
preceding pages: 

PREPARING THE BEDS. 

When enough manure has accumulated for a bed, prepare it in the 
following way: Turn it over, shaking it up loosely and mixing it all well 
together. Throw aside the dry strawy part, also any white u burnt” 
manure that may be in it, and all extraneous matter, as sticks, stones, 
old tins, bones, leather straps, rags, scraps of iron, or such other trash 
as we usually find in manure heaps, but do not throw out any of the 
wet straw; indeed we should aim to retain all the straw that has been 
well wetted in the stable. If the manure is too dry, do not hesitate to 
sprinkle it freely with water, and it will take a good deal of water to 
well moisten a heap of dry manure. Then throw it into a compact 
oblong pile about 3 or 4 feet high and tread it down a little. This is to 
prevent hasty and violent heating and u burning,” for firmly packed 
manure does not heat up so readily or whiten so quickly as does a pile 
loosely thrown together. Leave it undisturbed until fermentation has 
started briskly, which, in early fall, may be in two or three days, or in 
winter, in six to ten day*?-; then turn it over again, shaking it up 
thoroughly and loosely and keeping what was outside before inside 
now, and what was inside before toward the outside now; and if there 
are any unduly dry parts moisten them as you go along. Trim up 
the heap into the same shape as before and again tread it down firmly. 

This compacting of the pile at every turning reduces the number of 
required turnings. When hot manure is turned and thrown loosely 
into a pile it regains its great heat so rapidly that it will need turning 
again within twenty-four hours in order to save it from burning, and 
all practical men know that at every turning ammonia is wasted, the 
most potent food of the mushroom. We should therefore endeavor to 
17841-3 17 




18 


get along with as few turnings as possible; at the same time never 
allow any part of the manure to burn, even if we have to turn the 
heap every day. These turnings should be continued until the manure 
has lost its tendency to heat violently, and its hot rank smell is gone— 
usually in about three weeks’ time. If the manure, or any part of it ? 
is too dry at the turning, the dry part should be sprinkled with water 
and kept in the middle of the heap. Plain water is generally used for 
moistening the manure, but I sometimes use liquid from the stable 
tanks, which not only answers the purpose of wetting the dry materi. 
als, but it is also a powerful stimulant and welcome addition to the 
manure. But the greatest vigilance should be observed to guard 
against overmoistening the manure; far better fail on the side of dry. 
ness than on that of wetness. 

If the manure is too wet to begin with it should be spread out thinly 
and loosely and exposed to sun and wind, if practicable, to dry. Dry¬ 
ing by exposure in this way is not as enervating as u burning” in a 
hot pile; and better have recourse to any method of drying the manure 
than use it wet. If, on account of the weather or lack of convenience for 
drying, the manure can not be dried enough, add dry loam, dry sand, 
dry half-rotted leaves, dry peat moss, dry chaff, or dry finely-cut hay 
or straw, and mix together. 

The proper condition of the manure as regards dryness or moistness 
can be readily known by handling it. Take a handful of the manure 
and squeeze it tight 5 it should be unctous enough to hold together in 
a lump and so dry that you can not squeeze a drop of water out of it. 

Some private gardeners iii England lay particular stress upon collect¬ 
ing the fresh droppings at the stable everyday and spreading them out 
upon a shed or barn floor to dry, and in this way keeping them dry and 
from heating until enough has accumulated for abed, when the bed is made 
up entirely of this material or of part of this and part of loam. But mar¬ 
ket gardeners, the ones whose bread and butter depend upon the crops 
they raise, never practice this method, and that patriarch in the busi¬ 
ness, Bichard Gilbert, denounces the practice unstintedly. Different 
growers have different ideas of preparing manure for mushroom beds, 
but the aim of all is to get it into the best possible condition with 
the least labor and expense, and to guard against depriving it of any 
more ammonia than can be helped. 

SPAWNING THE BEDS. 

After the mushroom bed is made up it should, within a few days, 
warm to a temperature of 110° to 120° F. Carefully observe this, and 
never spawn a bed when the heat is rising or when it is warmer than 
100°, but always when it is on the decline and under 90°. In this there 
is perfect safety. Have a ground thermometer and keep it plunged into 
the bed ; by pulling it out and looking at it one can easily know exactly 


19 


the temperature of tlie bed. Have a few straight smooth stakes, like 
short walking canes, and stick the end of these into the bed, 12 to 20 
feet apart; by pulling them out and feeling them with the hand one can 
tell pretty closely the temperature of the bed. 

All practical mushroom-growers know that if the temperature of a 
12-incli thick bed at 7 inches from the surface is 100° that within an 
inch of the surface of the bed will only be about 95° indoors and 85° 
to 90° out of doors. Also, that when the heat of the manure is on the 
decline it falls rapidly 5, often 10, degrees a day till it reaches about 75°, 
and between that and 05° it may rest for weeks. 

Some years ago 1 gave considerable attention to this matter of spawn¬ 
ing beds at different temperatures. Spawn planted as soon as the bed 
was made (live days after spawning, the heat in interior of bed ran up 
to 123°) yielded no mushrooms, the mycelium being killed. The same 
was the case in all beds Avliere the spawn had been planted before the 
heat in the beds had attained its maximum (120° or over). Where the 
heat in the middle of the bed never reached 115°, the spawn put in 
when the bed was made and molded over the same day yielded a small 
crop of mushrooms. A bed in which the heat was declining was 
spawned at 110°; this bore a very good crop, and at 100° and under to 
65°, good crops in every case were secured with several days’ delay in 
bearing in the case of the lowest temperatures. But, notwithstanding 
these facts, my advice to all beginners in mushroom-growing is, wait 
until the heat of the bed is on the decline and has fallen to at least 90° 
before inserting the spawn. 

Writing to me about spawning his bed, Mr. Withington, of New Jer¬ 
sey, says: u I believe a bed spawned at 90° to 70° and kept at 55° after 
the mushrooms appear will give better results than one spawned at a 
higher temperature, say 90°.” 

Here is the oddest thing about Mr. J. G. Gardner’s method of mushroom¬ 
growing. He does not give the manure any preparatory treatment for 
the beds. He hauls it from the cars to the cellar, at once spreads it 
upon the floor, and packs it solid into a bed. For example, on one oc¬ 
casion the manure arrived at Jobstown, July 8. It was hauled home 
and the bed made up the same day, and the flrst mushrooms were 
gathered from this bed the second week in September, just two months 
from the time the manure left the New York or Jersey City stables. 
The bed Avas 15 inches thick. In making it the manure was first shaken 
up loosely to admit of its being more evenly spread than if pitched out 
in heavy forkfuls, and it Avas then tramped doAvn firmly with the feet. 
The bed Avas then marked off into halves. On one-half (No. 1) a layer 
of a little over 3 inches of loam was at once placed over the manure. 
On the other half (No. 2) no loam Avas used at this time, but the manure 
on the surface of the bed—about 3 inches deep—was forked over loosely. 
Twelve days after having been put in the temperature of the bed No. 


20 






2 (3 inches deep) was 00° and then it was spawned. On the next day 
the soil from bed No. 1, spawned four days earlier, was thrown upon 
bed No. 2, and then part of the soil that was thrown on No. 1 was 
thrown back again on No. 2, so that now a coating of loam an inch and 
a half deep covered the whole surface of the bed. When finished the 
surface was tamped gently with a tamper with a face of pine plank 10 
inches long by 12 inches wide. Mr. Gardner does not believe in the 
alleged advantages of a hard-packed surface on the mushroom bed, 
but is inclined to favor a moderately firm one. 

THE MUSHROOM INDUSTRY. 

The following review of the mushroom industry of the United Stales 
is condensed from a paper read by Mr. William Falconer, of Glen Cove, 
N. Y., at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society held in 
Boston, Mass., in February, 1894: 

Mushroom-growing is becoming quite an important industry in this 
country, and is attracting great attention. Until a few years ago a 
veil of mystery hung over this branch of horticulture, and gardeners 
alone indulged in it. Mushrooms were cultivated in the dark in caves 
and cellars; the seed was not sown, plants were not set out, spawn was 
indefinable. Successful cultivators were silent, and the general public 
were kept in darkness. Within the last four years mushroom-growing 
in this country has quadrupled. The production has not, however? 
kept pace with cultivation, for there have been failures. But the 
industry has become firmly planted, not only among professional horti¬ 
culturists, but among amateurs; indeed, some of the largest growers 
are manufacturers and others who, having unoccupied caves or cellars, 
have gone into the business with the view of utilizing room that would 
otherwise be idle and unproductive. Florists have planted thousands 
of square yards under their greenhouse benches that otherwise would 
be worthless to them. In their case mushrooms are a comparatively 
inexpensive auxiliary to their business, and nearly all they make above 
the expense of labor and spawn is net profit, for they need the loam 
and rotted manure in their florist work. Chicken-raisers have also 
taken to the mushroom business for profit; they want to grow some¬ 
thing that will bring them in money in the winter time. This increased 
production will reduce the price from a fictitious to a popular basis and 
place on the table of the middle classes a wholesome delicacy which 
before had been restricted to the wealthy; and many persons who now 
use the tasteless indigestible putty balls from imported cans will 
repudiate the foreign article and accept no other than the whole¬ 
some, tooothsome, juicy domestic product. 

But we should see to it that the price of mushrooms does not fall so 
low as to render their cultivation unprofitable. This may be done by 
proclaiming their virtues and making them popular with the multitude. 


21 


To make them generally popular three things are necessary, namely, to 
increase the supply, moderate the price, and bring them before the 
notice ot the people. It mushrooms could be obtained at moderate 
prices, the demand would increase tenfold at once. A Philadelphia 
gentleman writes that one tiling we have pressing need for is a good 
distributing agency in every good city. If Philadelphia were properly 
canvassed by a well-equipped company for distributing the product of 
the growers direct to the consumers, it would use twenty times as many 
mushrooms as it now does. There are a few commission fruit men there 
who have most of the business and cater to some of the hotels, but the 
enormous host of well-to-do people are not approached at all. These 
well-to-do people are lamentably ignorant of the delicious morsel and 
need educating to the gastronomic delights they are missing by not 
having fresh mushrooms frequently on their tables. The cooks also 
need educating, for few of them can cook mushrooms. When improp¬ 
erly cooked they are tough, leathery, dry, and tasteless; when properly 
cooked they are the most delicious morsels in the vegetable kingdom, 
with an aroma to tempt the gods. 

As now grown mushrooms are a somewhat uncertain crop. We may 
have the most extravagant success one year and only partial success 
the next, and yet, so far as we know, the materials, preparation, and 
care were the same in both cases. Now we must discover, first, what 
caused the success, that we may stick to it; and, secondly, what caused 
the failure, that we may avoid it. No one should attempt to grow mush¬ 
rooms who has not a good place—shed, cellar, greenhouse, stable, or the 
like—and only the best materials should be used, that is, good fresh 
horse manure, cleau, sweet loam, and a superior spawn. The most vital 
point is the preparation of the manure, which should be moist but never 
wet, and above all should not burn or u fire-fang.” 

It is just as easy to grow mushrooms on a small scale for home use as 
it is to grow flowers or strawberries and comparatively with no more 
expense. In fact, when we do the work ourselves we do not reckon 
any expense, and we reap a delicious luxury for our pains. Charles L. 
Hill, of San Francisco, who has a large canning factory, has in connec¬ 
tion with it what he calls a u mushroom factory,” which consists of 
ranges of sheds filled with beds. His object in starting it was to have 
something to can in winter. His houses are so arranged that he does 
the work of loading and unloading the manure by machinery, and runs 
it in and out of the houses on little railroad cars. The only drawback 
to raising mushrooms in summer is that they are then attacked by flies 
which produce maggots. The bowels of the earth, as in caves and aban¬ 
doned quarries, are inhospitable places to this pest, and mushrooms 
can as well be grown in them in summer as in winter. In the village 
of Akron, about 30 miles from Buffalo, N. Y., are tunnels from which 
stone has been taken to make hydraulic cement and which have been 
utilized for growing mushrooms. The largest and most successful 


22 


grower has nearly 3 acres in beds. The temperature of these caves 
varies only from 56° in winter to G5° in summer. American growers 
have not hitherto generally succeeded in making as good spawn for 
propagating mushrooms as is imported from France and England, and 
consequently the importations from these countries have greatly in¬ 
creased during the last three years. When the American spawn is 
equally potent, it is not offered in as attractive form as the European, 
and the tendency of home growers has been to charge a higher rate for 
what they manufacture. 

A NEW SPECIES. 

Mr. Falconer described a new species of mushroom, Agaricus subru - 
fescens Peck. In the summer of 1892 he observed quantities of a rather 
uncouth looking mushroom, which was new to him, growing wild on 
and about piles of leaf mold. They are not scattered about as mush¬ 
rooms which are found in the held, but grew in bunches of two, three, 
or more—a dozen or two frequently growing together. But the crop 
was not steady. There might be a great quantity one week, hardly 
any the next, lots the following week, and so on. After a rain they 
would spring up like magic. There were about forty loads of rotting 
leaves in the pile, and in forking into it a gentle heat was found all 
summer. The spawn of the mushroom had run through the whole mass 
over 2 feet deep. The best ones grew in the two or three year old mold. 
His attention was called to the fact that a neighboring florist was picking 
a large quantity of mushrooms from his greenhouses and selling them at 
high prices in New York. Mr. Falconer went and saw them and found 
the statements true, but instead of the common mushroom (Agaricus 
campestris) it proved to be the same stranger he was studying at home. 
It appeared with the florist there the year before. Old violet beds in his 
grape and tomato house were full of mushrooms; old hotbeds in the 
nursery were run over with them, and they were growing in the open 
ground among his asparagus between rows of pear trees. Wherever 
planted they were coming up like a crop of weeds, and in sunshine and 
shade with apparent indifference. He had a bonanza and was increasing 
his mushroom-growing facilities; but while the mushroom has behaved 
with varying grace to him since then, it has not been so productive as it 
was the first year. It was pronounced a new species by Prof. 0. H. 
Peck, State botanist of New York, and was named by him Agaricus 
subrufescens. 

There is no doubt that this species has come to stay, especially as a 
summer crop. Before now the price of spawn—$5 for a 5-pound pack¬ 
age—was prohibitory; but the spawn of the new species will be offered 
this spring cheap enough for every person to try it. It will be sold as 
flake spawn—that is, not in bricks, but in the condition in which we get 
the French spawn—aaul probably at $1.50 a bushel or $5 a barrel. It 
is not only extraordinarily productive, but, unlike the ordinary mush- 


23 


room, it can be grown in summer, for it springs up so fast that the larvm of 
the little flies have hardly time to develop before the mushrooms are 
ready for use. It is, however, no more maggot-proof than the old one. 
Its disadvantages are its toadstool appearance, its uncertain behavior, 
and the fact that the crop comes in spurts, lots to-day and none 
to-morrow. But further acquaintance may overcome the dislike to its 
looks and practical experience control its behavior. Bulk for bulk it 
is not as heavy as the common mushroom. Though its cap is deeper 
and broader, it is thinner and therefore lighter. It does not burst its 
veil as soon as the old kind, but after it does it gets old very quickly. 
It is very good to eat, having a pronounced mushroom flavor and 
exuding a fair quantity of juice. The flesh is also tender. Several per¬ 
sons whom Mr. Falconer knows prefer it to the common mushroom, 
though he was still inclined to favor his old and toothsome friend A. 
campestris. 

This new mushroom requires more heat and more water than the old. 
In one case, where a bed of mushrooms about one-fourth grown stood 
still for three or four days, after a good soaking they swelled up finely 
and gave an immense crop. Watering is generally injurious to young 
mushrooms of the old species. The new species grows as well in winter 
as in summer, provided the cultural conditions are as favorable. It 
will grow in a cellar of Egyptian darkness as well as in the daylight; 
in fact, darkness whitens it and robs it of much of its outdoor coarse¬ 
ness. One cultivator thought it not quite as good for shipping as A. 
campestris , but for home trade and gathered when fresh his customers 
pronounced it superior to that species. Mr. Falconer said that, not¬ 
withstanding the uncertainty of mushroom-growing, one man on Long 
Island had been at it uninterruptedly for thirty years, and had made 
more money in it than any other man in the same trade in America. 


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